Located some 25 miles north of Santa Fe along the Rio Grande, San Juan Pueblo is the largest of all the northern pueblos with 2,500 to 3,000 members and a total population of about 5,500 people. Traditionally, San Juan was also the birthplace of Popé, the man credited with organizing the Pueblo Revolt of 1680, which succeeded in banishing the Spanish from the region for 12 years. With an estimated 2,400 tribal members and 45,965 acres, Santa Clara Pueblo is the second-largest in population and physical size of the Eight Northern Pueblos. The Tewa-speaking pueblo of Santa Clara was established around 1550 when a drought forced their ancestors to move into the fertile Río Grande Valley.

New Mexico's first Spanish community was established by Don Juan de Onate in 1598, just north of city limits on San Juan Pueblo land. He created a Spanish settlement in an area already inhabited by the indigenous descendants of the Anasazi. The treatment of the natives was typical of the Conquistadores at that time, with enslavement and brutality being a mainstay, despite the initially warm welcome.

After Mexico won independence from Spain in 1821, dissatisfaction with administration and policy carried out by the far away Capitol in Mexico City brought rebellion by the settlers and pueblos north of Santa Fe in 1837. A fierce battle was fought between the rebels and Mexican troops near Santa Cruz. In 1944, the Mexican government took steps to set up political division in the new territory and the Río Arriba County was established.

The Anglo culture was the last to make its roots here and has developed in Espanola only over the past 150 years. The growing Anglo population started with the settlement of members of the farming or cowboy community, the artistic community, and more recently members of the scientific, educational and business community. Española has also attracted members of a large Sikh community to settle here, due to the serene and peaceful setting of this rural area.

The prosperous agrarian society of the natives and the Spanish was replaced by a money-based system with the introduction of the railroad. As is typical throughout history, this disadvantaged many locals. They were forced to adopt a system for which they lacked the education. Many continued to farm, and their families still do today; however, they were taught to farm to sell rather than to sustain, and so are also disadvantaged. These factors are the most important to the development of Española today. With the restoration and upgrading of deteriorated urban property by an emerging middle-class population came the displacement of lower-income people. This has resulted in many of the current problems of substance abuse, crime, and racism. However there has been some new economic growth in Espanola with the establishment of some major national chains which has brought increased employment opportunities and revenues to the city. Also with the expansion of the the Northern New Mexico Community College the local population has more opportunity to expand their educational horizons.